Serhatlerin Gölgesinde: Klasik Dönemden 18. Yüzyıla Kadar Osmanlı Devleti'nde Çeteci Teşkilâtı

The term “çete” is not of Turkish origin. It is a term used in the modern era to describe criminal organizations engaged in illegal activities. However, it was used as a verb during the Ottoman period and had a military meaning. According to the literature, it refers to a raid carried out with fewer than a hundred people, without the participation of the akıncı bey. It is used in the same sense as potera. Unlike akın and haramilik, no pençik tax is paid to the state in exchange for prisoners taken by the çete. 

The term was first used in Ottoman official correspondence to describe the Austrian Empire's cross-border raids and small-scale acts of harassment. Later, it began to encompass different nations living in different geographical areas and the Ottoman's own border activities. The word, which was also used in the Ottoman in conjunction with the motif of gaza, is not related to banditry. Until the mid-19th century, it was not used for groups engaged in illegal activities. It took centuries for the verb to become a noun. 

Çete carried out by çetecis. Çetecis are brave veterans who appear on the frontiers and work under the orders of the çete aghas, çete başbuğu, and çeteci başı, depending on the situation. They are selected from among the Anatolian and Rumelian youth. Their actions are motivated by religion. However, they are fundamentally based on economic interests. The çetecis' duty is to disrupt the internal balance by carrying out attacks on enemy state borders, taking prisoners, gathering information, and attacking supply convoys. Under normal circumstances, they cannot take action without official orders. Their activities take place under the authority of the highest administrative officer in the region. During the classical period of the Ottoman Empire, they made their living through looting, taking prisoners, and receiving gratuities from the sultan. The large number of akıncı deaths in 1595 and the relative stabilization of borders following the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 led to the decline in importance of the çeteci organization. After military superiority began to be lost, çetecis were provided with support in the form of gratuities, daily allowances and food supplies. In some cases, çetecis who fought on the battlefield in exchange for daily allowances gradually evolved into an organization whose expenses were covered by the state.

Çete was formed to test the other side, even though there was peace between the two states until the 17th century. Whether consciously or unconsciously, these actions were not entirely under control. During this period, when borders were not clearly defined, these actions sometimes reached dangerous levels. In such cases, public order and social stability were disrupted, leading to socio-economic crises. After military superiority was lost, sensitivity regarding border issues increased. For this reason, çetecis began to be brought under control.

Çete concentrated along the Austrian borders in the 16th century. By the 17th century, they had begun to shift towards the borders of Poland and Russia. In the last quarter of the 17th century, the main areas were the Black Sea and the Danube River. Although there is information about çeteci activities on the borders of Russia, Poland, and Iran in the 18th century, the main focus remained on the Black Sea and the Danube River. The shift of çetecis from land to sea brought about a number of changes in the system. Çetecis began to use çete boats instead of horses as a means of transportation. Çete boats were designed to be small in size so that they could move quickly, carry out rapid raids, and maneuver easily. The emergence of çete boats was influenced by the Albanians and Cossacks. They were named çete boats because of their small crews and their assignments of looting, guarding ships, gathering intelligence, and collecting supplies. Çete activities in the Black Sea and the Danube River continued until the 19th century. However, in 1826, the çete organization was abolished along with the Janissary Corps. Thus, the word “çete” began to be associated with banditry and outlawry in official state correspondence and came to be used as it is understood in the modern era. The çete organization made significant contributions to the Ottoman Empire until its abolition. In the second half of the 19th century, when signs of military, financial, administrative, and social weakness were observed, it was proposed that the organization be reestablished. In this context, in 1858-59, a non-Muslim named Boski submitted a proposal to the state for the establishment of a çeteci-like organization.